Chapter 2 Tools for Building a Better World Objectives
- Define morals, values, ethics, and environmental ethics.
Ethics is a branch of philosophy concerned with morals (the distinction between right and wrong) and values (the ultimate worth of actions or things). Ethics evaluates the relationships, rules, principles, or codes that require or forbid certain conduct. Environmental ethics asks about the moral relationships between humans and the world around us.
- Define universalim, relativism, nihilism, utilitarianism, modernism, postmodernism.
Universalists, such as Plato and Kant, assert that the fundamental principles of ethics are universal, unchanging, and eternal. These rules of right and wrong are valid regardless of our interests, attitudes, desires, or preferences.
Relativists, such as Plato's opponents, the Sophists, claim that moral principles always are relative to a particular person, society, or situation. Relativists assert that no transcendent, absolute principles apply regardless of circumstances.
Nihilists, such as Schopenhauer, on the other hand, claim that the world makes no sense at all. Everything is completely arbitrary, and there is no meaning or purpose in life other than the dark, instinctive, unceasing struggle for existence. In their view, there is no reason to behave morally. Only power, strength, and sheer survival matter.
Utilitarians, hold that an action is right that produces the greatest good for the greatest number of people. To do so is good; not to do so is wrong. Pinchot an early conservationist argued that the purpose of conservation is to protect resources for the "greatest good for the greatest number for the longest time." Utilitarianism is widely popular today, it has drawbacks. Justice, freedom, morals, and loyalty take precedence over pleasure, or even happiness, although it could be argued that furthering moral ends, and right action ought to bring the greatest happiness in the end.
- How do the above philosophies affect attitudes towards the environment?
From a postmodernist perspective, nature--or at least our perception of it--is an arbitrary, ever-shifting social construction.
- Define moral extensionism and inherent value.
The widening definition of which we consider ethically significant is called moral extensionism. For many philosophers, only humans are moral agents, beings capable of acting morally or immorally and who can--and should--accept responsibility for their acts. Children are considered moral subjects, beings who are not moral agents themselves but who have moral interests of their own and can be treated rightly or wrongly by others.
- How do the rights of animals and nonsentient things affect our views of the environment?
Most philosophers do not extend their beliefs to nonhumans. Some philosophers do extend ethics to consider value. Value can be either inherent or conferred. All humans have inherent value, simply because their human. Tools on the other have conferred or instrumental value. Some would draw a line of moral considerability at the limit of sentience. In this perspective, just being alive gives things inherent value. In addition, some people believe that even nonliving things also have inherent worth. Our beliefs about our proper roles in the world are deeply conditioned by our ethical perspectives.
- Define domination, anthropocentrism, stewardship, biocentrism, ecocentrism, and ecofeminism.
Pride in our power to reshape the world to our liking and a belief that we are superior to other creatures often have been used to justify domination of nature. Many of us clearly behave as if we have a right to use resources and abuse nature as we choose. This view of humans as the focus of creation is termed anthropocentric, or human-centered. Many tribal or indigenous people, both hunters and gatherers, as well as traditional agricultural societies have a strong sense of stewardship or responsibility to manage and care for a particular place. The see their proper role as working together with human and nonhuman forces to sustain life. Biocentric (life-centered) egalitarianism claiming that all living organisms have intrinsic values and rights regardless of whether they are useful to us. Ecocentric (ecologically centered) because it claims moral values and rights for ecological processes and systems, the whole is considered more important than its individual parts. Ecofeminism a pluralistic, nonhierarchical, relationship-oriented philosophy that suggests how humans could reconceive themselves and their relationships to nature in nondominating ways, is proposed as an alternative to patriarchal systems of domination.
- How do the above perspectives affect attitudes towards the environment?
Science is a methodical, meticulous, dispassionate study of the natural world. It takes many different forms and is done in various ways by diverse people, but observation, hypothesis formation, testing, analysis, and re-evaluation of hypotheses in light of new data form the core of scientific methodology.
- Describe environmental justice?
Environmental justice combines civil rights with environmental protection to demand a safe, healthy, life-giving environment for everyone.
- Is nature fragile or resilient? What are some factors?
Claims of fragility and delicate balances in nature sometimes are overstated. They many be statements of faith rather than fact. In many circumstances, nature is amazingly fecund and resilient. Our own view of nature. Our early ancestors thought nature was vast, chaotic, and implacable. Now we see the remaining remnants of wild nature as endangered enclaves of paradise while the city represents chaos, evil, and danger.
- Define science and technology. How has technology historically affected the environment?
Science is a systematic, precise, objective way to study the natural world. Science is a way of knowing about the physical world based on an ordered cycle of observations, methodical investigation, and interpretation of results. Technology is the method of accomplishing a task usually employing a machine, or technical methods. Technology makes it possible to make bigger mistakes faster than ever before. Pollution, rapid urbanization, inhumane working conditions for many, and vast disparities in wealth and power between classes still cause social and environmental crises.
- Describe appropriate technology.
Appropriate technology promotes machines and approaches suitable for local conditions and cultures. It attempts to design productive facilities in places where people now live, not in urban areas. It looks for products that are affordably made by simple production methods from local materials for local use. It advocates safe, creative, environmentally sound emotionally satisfying work conducted in conditions of human dignity and freedom that creates a social bonds rather than breaking them down.
- What is critical thinking? Why is it important in environmental issues?